Types of French as a Second Language in Ontario
In Ontario there are three types of French language education offered to English language speaking students: Core French, Extended French and French Immersion. The availability of these different programs varies depending on the demand for specific programming, and only Core French is required in order to graduate with the Ontario Secondary School Diploma. Students are only required to complete one second-language course in secondary school, resulting in a growing number of students choosing to only complete the required grade nine Core French credit.
Native language education in Ontario
The Ontario government launched the Ontario First Nations, Metis and Inuit Education Policy Framework in 2007. In addition to addressing a number of other Aboriginal educational concerns, the need for Native Language education was a major component. Prior to this framework launch, Karen Hill prepared the report “First Nations Languages and Education in Ontario” in 2004. This report examines the needs for specific Aboriginal language programming in Ontario.
The province of Ontario has the largest population of First Nations people in Canada, encompassing a hugely diverse population. Within this population there are three major linguistic groups: Anishinaabemowin (Ojibway), Mushkelowuk (Cree) and Ogwehowehegeha (Iroquoian each embodying numerous dialects). The majority of these languages are in a state of crisis, with very low levels of fluency. The following table is a breakdown of Ontario First Nations languages spoken across Canada.
The province of Ontario has the largest population of First Nations people in Canada, encompassing a hugely diverse population. Within this population there are three major linguistic groups: Anishinaabemowin (Ojibway), Mushkelowuk (Cree) and Ogwehowehegeha (Iroquoian each embodying numerous dialects). The majority of these languages are in a state of crisis, with very low levels of fluency. The following table is a breakdown of Ontario First Nations languages spoken across Canada.
Taken from First Nations Languages and Education in Ontario by Karen Hill
In addition to Native as a Second Language instruction, there are a select few institutions providing total immersion and 50/50 immersion Native language programs. These programs attempt to completely immerse students in Native Language, and also provide significant cultural content. These models are use primarily by the Ogwehowehgha at Six Nations of the Grand River Territory, and the Mohawks of Akwesasne. Six Nations of the Grand River Territory offers two different programs: I.L. Thomas offers Cayuga Immersion for grades 1-8, and Kawennio offers Mohawk immersion for grades 1 to secondary school. These programs follow the Ontario provincial curriculum, but use a First Nation language for all instruction and interaction with students.
The table below illustrates the different types of Native Language instruction offered to students in Ontario schools:
The table below illustrates the different types of Native Language instruction offered to students in Ontario schools:
Other languages offered for second language instruction at selected school boards
With the ever-increasing levels of cultural diversity in Ontario school boards are opting to offer addition courses in second language instruction. The majority of these courses aim to allow students to reconnect with the cultural heritage through instruction in the language of the cultural identity, or home language. It is important to note that the majority of these courses are offered as night classes, or on the weekend, and not during the regular school day. These programs exist with the support of community partners, but are funded at least in part through the Ministry of Education.
We have chosen to look at programming offered by five different school boards: Toronto District School Board (TDSB), Ottawa-Carleton District School Board (OCDSB), Limestone District School Board, Peel District School Board and the Lakehead District School Board. The variety of courses offered is reflective of the diverse populations in each of these areas.
We have chosen to look at programming offered by five different school boards: Toronto District School Board (TDSB), Ottawa-Carleton District School Board (OCDSB), Limestone District School Board, Peel District School Board and the Lakehead District School Board. The variety of courses offered is reflective of the diverse populations in each of these areas.
Types of Bilingual Education
Bilingual language education can be categorized into two broad program types: bilingualism and immersion programs. These programs can go by various names. In fact, according to Mackey (1978, cited in Jiang 2013), there are over 90 various types of bilingual education programs worldwide. Thus, the type of program is reflective of the language policy promoted by the particular nation. The following program types will be described below as they are most relevant to the Canadian context: Bilingual Reception Models, Transitional Models, Simultaneous Models, Maintained Bilingual Education, Heritage Language Instruction, and Immersion programs.
Bilingual Reception Model
When the language policy targets the children of immigrants or of countries where the Indigenous became the minority people due to colonialism, the programs are referred to as Bilingual Reception Models (BRM). For these minority language (ML) children, the target language (L2) is neither their first language nor their home language. Often their first language (L1) is still developing (Chumak-Horbatsch, 2008). According to De Houwer (1999, cited in Chumak-Horbatsch op cit), these children are either early active bilinguals, where they respond and initiate in both the L1 and the L2; passive bilinguals, where they appear to understand both the L1 and L2, but produces only one of the languages; and early monolinguals, where they do not appear to understand both languages and produce only one of the languages. BRM programs can be sub-divided into Transitional Models and Simultaneous Models (Driessen 2005).
As the name suggests, the Transitional Models work to transition the child from their L1 to the L2. They received their education in their first language up until Grade 3. In Grade 4, they receive mixed instruction of 50% L1 and 50% L2. Then, from Grade 5, they receive instruction in the L2 only. This approach follows the recommendations on the United Nations that children should receive instruction in their native language through Grade 3, as it solidifies their first language, and therefore makes acquisition of the second language easier. The Cree and Kativik School Boards in Canada follow this approach. As an indication of its success, Denmark, which controls Greenland, has used this approach to educating the Aboriginal Kalaallit since 1841 (Patrick et al 1999); not only have the people maintained their own language, but it has made their integration into the Danish body-politic easy. (Patrick et al, op cit).
The second model is the Simultaneous Model. In essence, it eliminates the first stage of the Transitional Model. Instead, for the first two to three years of their education, the children receive instruction equally in the L1 and the L2. From Grade 4 or 5 onwards, they receive instruction in the L2 only.
Within the Canadian context, Jiang (2013) writes that there is Maintained Bilingual Education, which aims to keep the minority language, enhance awareness of the learner's cultural identity and improve bilingual skills; and there is Transitional Education, which has the goal of integration, and the "aim of language and cultural assimilation." Jiang notes that there is both a strong form of bilingualism, where both languages are equally emphasized, and weak form, with assimilation as the goal (Baker 1993, cited in Jiang op cit).
For example, French Immersion would be considered Maintained Bilingual Education. It is also important to note that assimilation is not inherently negative. Jiang considers the American context of the Melting Pot Policy, where immigrants themselves wanted to forge themselves into American citizens through their involvement in mainstream language and mainstream culture.
Heritage language programs have the specific purpose of rejuvenating an indigenous language that is endangered (Pacific Research Centre, 2010). Within a global context, this includes Gaelic language in Scotland, Welsh in Wales, Finnish in Sweden, and Catalan in Spain. In Canada, Heritage language programs were initially created as part of the multiculturalism policy to promote the heritage of immigrants and their contribution to Canada, and to “preserve and enhance the use of languages other than English or French” (cited in Wu and Bilash, 1999), for example Ukrainian, Chinese, Hebrew, Arabic and German.
As the name suggests, the Transitional Models work to transition the child from their L1 to the L2. They received their education in their first language up until Grade 3. In Grade 4, they receive mixed instruction of 50% L1 and 50% L2. Then, from Grade 5, they receive instruction in the L2 only. This approach follows the recommendations on the United Nations that children should receive instruction in their native language through Grade 3, as it solidifies their first language, and therefore makes acquisition of the second language easier. The Cree and Kativik School Boards in Canada follow this approach. As an indication of its success, Denmark, which controls Greenland, has used this approach to educating the Aboriginal Kalaallit since 1841 (Patrick et al 1999); not only have the people maintained their own language, but it has made their integration into the Danish body-politic easy. (Patrick et al, op cit).
The second model is the Simultaneous Model. In essence, it eliminates the first stage of the Transitional Model. Instead, for the first two to three years of their education, the children receive instruction equally in the L1 and the L2. From Grade 4 or 5 onwards, they receive instruction in the L2 only.
Within the Canadian context, Jiang (2013) writes that there is Maintained Bilingual Education, which aims to keep the minority language, enhance awareness of the learner's cultural identity and improve bilingual skills; and there is Transitional Education, which has the goal of integration, and the "aim of language and cultural assimilation." Jiang notes that there is both a strong form of bilingualism, where both languages are equally emphasized, and weak form, with assimilation as the goal (Baker 1993, cited in Jiang op cit).
For example, French Immersion would be considered Maintained Bilingual Education. It is also important to note that assimilation is not inherently negative. Jiang considers the American context of the Melting Pot Policy, where immigrants themselves wanted to forge themselves into American citizens through their involvement in mainstream language and mainstream culture.
Heritage language programs have the specific purpose of rejuvenating an indigenous language that is endangered (Pacific Research Centre, 2010). Within a global context, this includes Gaelic language in Scotland, Welsh in Wales, Finnish in Sweden, and Catalan in Spain. In Canada, Heritage language programs were initially created as part of the multiculturalism policy to promote the heritage of immigrants and their contribution to Canada, and to “preserve and enhance the use of languages other than English or French” (cited in Wu and Bilash, 1999), for example Ukrainian, Chinese, Hebrew, Arabic and German.
Immersion Programs
Immersion-bilingual programs are generally established to maintain the authority of the majority language while strengthening the minority language. The minority language is taught as an L2, but not simply as a subject - it is the medium for learning content, whether it is mathematics, literature, or science.
There are many types of immersion programs. The first three broad categories are early, middle and late immersion. Early immersion begins in kindergarten, middle immersion in grade 4 or 5, and late immersion beginning in grade 9. These can be sub-categorized as total immersion, where the minority language is taught 100% of the time; partial immersion, where the minority and majority language are each taught for 50% of the day; and two-way immersion, where minority language speakers and majority language speakers are in the same class, and both languages are used for instruction and as a medium for learning (Genesse and Leary, 2008; Marian, Schook, and Schroeder, 2013; Cummins, forthcoming). "L1 maintenance and development cannot be achieved without a strong commitment from the parents" (Lao 2004 p116) |
Our children's attitudes toward, and the maintenance of their L1 depend mostly how we parents look upon the L1, when and how often and with whom we communicate in the L1, and with what we associate the L1; especially when our L1 is marginalized in the new culture. |